M Sc Botany

Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification, involves the direct manipulation of an organism’s genome using biotechnology. Genetic engineering enables the addition of new DNA into an organism, introducing traits not originally found in that organism. Recombinant DNA is essential for creating GMOs. It helps study specific genes by modifying them. Researchers can insert genes from various organisms into bacteria, creating genetically modified bacteria for storage and further modification.

Biosphere reserves are regions of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems that promote methods to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are recognized on a global scale, selected by national governments, and continue to be governed by the sovereign authority of the states in which they are found. Human activities have led to undesirable effects on nature, causing multiple effects on land, soil, air, water, polluting and making life difficult. To a great extent these activities can be controlled by management of resources and implementing laws without fail. Understanding biomes, different types of vegetation, not only make us more responsible, it also make us more aware and inspire us to live without harming other species and to be proactive in protecting our environment. It is only when we realize the need to conserve other species and its habitat, we protect ourselves. Because without coexistence, no species can ultimately survive on Earth.

Although ferns and lycophytes, loosely termed “pteridophytes,” do not form a natural group—that is, they do not share a common ancestor (ferns are more closely related to seed plants than to lycophytes)—they are recognized together because they share a similar life history. Ferns and lycophytes have two distinct free-living plant forms that alternate. Through meiosis, sporophytes produce millions of tiny spores with only one set of chromosomes. When these spores find a suitable habitat, they germinate to form a small, inconspicuous, and seldom-observed gametophyte. On their under surfaces, the gametophytes form gametangia; antheridia, which produce many sperm; and/or archegonia, each of which produce a single ovum. The archegonia open and the flagellate sperm (with one set of chromosomes) actively swim to them. The fertilized ovum or zygote, now with two sets of chromosomes, grows into a sporophyte. Thus, the gametophyte represents the sexual generation, and the sporophyte, and the spores it produces, are asexual. This pattern involving two free-living life forms is referred to as the alternation of generations. No other vascular plants reproduce by spores and have alternation of free-living generations.

The biological processes of microorganisms have been used to make and preserve useful food products for more than 6000 years. Microbial biotechnology or industrial microbiology is the use of microorganisms to obtain an economically valuable product or activity at a commercial or large scale. The microorganisms used in industrial processes are natural, laboratory-selected mutant or genetically engineered strains. Economically valuable products such as alcohols, solvents, organic acids, amino acids, enzymes, fermented dairy products, food additives, vitamins, antibiotics, recombinant proteins and hormones, biopolymers, fertilizers, and biopesticides are produced by microorganisms that are used in chemical, food, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and other industries. Biodegradation and biotransformation of complex compounds, domestic and industrial wastewater treatment, biomining, and enhanced oil recovery are examples of microbial valuable activities. According to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, microbial biotechnology can be denned as any technological application that uses microbiological systems, microbial organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.

Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the genetic makeup of an organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated genomes indirectly by controlling breeding and selecting offspring with desired traits. Genetic engineering involves the direct manipulation of one or more genes. Most often, a gene from another species is added to an organism's genome to give it a desired phenotype.

Biophysics is the field that applies the theories and methods of physics to understand how biological systems work.

Biophysics has been critical to understanding the mechanics of how the molecules of life are made, how different parts of a cell move and function, and how complex systems in our bodies—the brain, circulation, immune system, and others— work. Biophysics is a vibrant scientific field where scientists from many fields including math, chemistry, physics, engineering, pharmacology, and materials sciences, use their skills to explore and develop new tools for understanding how biology—all life—works.

To understand the organizational principle of cellular functions at different levels, an integrative approach with large-scale experiments, the so-called “omics” data, is needed. In recent years, Omical biotechnologies utilized in plant sciences include genomics, transcriptomics, transposomics, proteomics, glycomics, lipidomics, metabolomics, fluxomics, and interactomics. These technologies have provided new insights into all the aspects of life sciences, including plant science.

Mushrooms are a big part of the story, but they remain a mystery. In fact, it’s amazing what we don’t know about mushrooms. We know more about bacteria and plants and certainly animals than we do about mushrooms. They are hard to study and haven’t received the kind of research attention these other kingdoms have, but they hold great value if we look a little deeper. There’s a brilliant chemistry to mushrooms, and endless possibilities. We’re just at the beginning of understanding them.
~ Michael Pollan